Making Sense of Prescription Drug Pricing
Mark Frisse
To understand the pricing of prescription drugs, one must wade through
a number of acronyms and concepts that have evolved over time and, in
this writer's opinion, obfuscate rather than clarify pricing.
Understanding the history of prescription drug pricing seems important
if one is to develop a transparent pricing approach. But here is an
irony, although CMS has the authority to ensure that where applicable
manufacturer's sales information on average manufacturer price and best
price are correct (see below), the Social Security Medicare Part D
legislation requires that this information be kept confidential and
hence it is not publicly available.
Terms
Average Wholesale Price (AWP).
"The AWP has often been equated with a “sticker price” or “list
price,” as those terms are used in the automobile industry. It has
become an important prescription drug pricing benchmark for payers
throughout the health care industry. Payments are typically based on
AWP minus some percentage. Despite its name, however, the AWP is not an
accurate reflection of actual market prices for drugs. As noted, it is
a price derived from self-reported manufacturer data for both branded
and generic drugs. There are no requirements or conventions that the
AWP reflect the price of any actual sale of drugs by a manufacturer, or
that it be updated at established intervals. It is not defined in law
or regulation, and it fails to account for the deep discounts available
to various payers, including certain federal agencies, providers, and
large purchasers, such as HMOs.
Consequently, the AWP has been the subject of great criticism and
scrutiny." (Source: Wikipedia)
Wholesale Acquisition Cost (WAC).
The price a wholesaler pays to a manufacturer for a drug. It is a
published price that does not include rebates or discounts. Sometimes
called the "catalog price." (Source: Gencarelli)
Average Manufacturer’s Price (AMP).
The average price paid to manufacturers by wholesalers (less discounts)
for a particular dosage form and strength of a prescription drug
distributed solely to the retail pharmacy class of trade. The AMP is
not a published price. It is calculated by the manufacturer and
submitted to CMS for purposes of calculating the Medicaid rebate.
(Source: Gencarelli)
Maximum Allowable Cost (MAC).
The highest price a health plan or other intermediary will pay for
medications. This cost figure becomes most relevant when there are more
than two generic options available for the drug. Maintaining a list of
these costs across all drugs is, as one document describes it, "tedious
and expensive."
Federal Supply Schedule (FSS).
Obtained from market transaction data reported by manufacturers. In
general, FSS may not be higher than the lowest price charge by the
manufacturer for non-federal purchasers. That is, the federal
government should never pay more than any other plan or intermediary.
Some federal bodies (e.g., the VA) set price according to FSS.
Federal Upper Limit (FUL).
This is a ceiling paid when there are more than three generic options
available. It is set at 150% of the least costly therapeutic equivalent
that can be purchased by pharmacies in quantities of 100 tables.
(Source Gencarelli)
Estimated Acquisition Cost (EAC).
This is the other upper limit complementing the FUL. EAC is a state's
estimate of price paid by providers for a drug. It is often used for
single-source (e.g., "brand") drugs. Most states use AWP to calculate
EAC.
Average Sales Price (ASP).
The average of all final sales prices charged for a prescription drug
in the United States to all purchasers (including mail order
pharmacies) excluding those sales that
are exempt from inclusion in the “best price” for Medicaid drug rebate
purposes. Defined by the OIG-mandated corporate
integrity agreement with TAP pharmaceuticals.
Usual and Customary Charge.
The common charge to the public for a prescription drug.
References
How this works.
First, a state determines a dispensing fee. Examples abound.
Second, a state determines a reimursement for ingredient costs. This is
often AWP less some percent (usually 5-15%) or WAC + some percent
(around 5%) - whichever is lower.
Remember that the federal government pays some portion of the charge,
depending on the state. (Follow this link to the Kaiser
Family Foundation's table of federal matching rates.) The rate in
Tennessee for 2007 is 63% and the rate in Florida is 58%.
States or other intermediaries then receive rebates from manufacturers
equal to some percentage of the AMP. It is higher (15% a good number)
for "sole source" drugs (e.g., "brand names) and a bit lower (around
10%) for multi-source drugs (e.g., generics). Sometimes the rebate is
the difference between the AMP and the best price. Sometimes it is
further increased if prices exceed the CPI or other inflation
indicators. The Federal rebate amount is the same for all states and
established by 42 U.S.C. 1296r-8(a).